Exploring Art Nouveau: The Power of Nature, Asymmetry, and Freedom of Form — History of Art #4

Used Photo: Alfons Mucha, Fruit 2 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

Art Nouveau is a unique artistic style characterized by extraordinary freedom of form, drawing inspiration from both nature and romantic as well as historical themes. Art Nouveau aimed to synthesize art and craftsmanship, combining aesthetics with functionality, making it an eclectic style that transcends the traditional boundaries of fine arts.

It was a style expressing a reaction against industrialization, striving to return to the craftsmanship tradition and artistic craftsmanship. Additionally, it was characterized by exceptionally branching roots and numerous precursors, ranging from the Pre-Raphaelites through Gothic Revival and Orientalism, to symbolism and historicism.

The fundamental characteristic of Art Nouveau is the asymmetrically undulating line, with a dynamic and energetic ending resembling a spearhead. This line can exhibit elegance and grace or, conversely, be lethargically dynamic. At times, it can be dry and thin, while at other times, flexible and substantial.

But this is only the widely known, easily recognizable, and popular characteristic of the style. The undulating line merely represents an external and narrowed expression of Art Nouveau. Because, in addition to its captivating aesthetics, Art Nouveau inspires a deeper understanding and a broader perspective on how it influences specific planes or three-dimensional objects.

In contrast to the static ornamentation of almost all previous stylistic periods, Art Nouveau ornamentation is simultaneously dynamic and static. At its core lies the aspiration to capture movement through well-balanced harmony. The goal of Art Nouveau decoration was to achieve unity and synthesis, expressed not only through aesthetic form but also as a carrier of symbolic content.

Art Nouveau incorporates various elements from nature, and within this ornamental world, a whole iconography has developed. Despite common international features, the style gradually revealed national variations, which were to some extent conditioned by national characteristics.

For example, the floral style inspired by plant elements, emphasizing growth and organic forms, emerged in France. In this cultural-geographic scope, covering the French-Belgian region, particular attention was given to ornamentation as a symbol of structure. Conversely, in Germany, Art Nouveau, known as Jugendstil, took on a more constructional-geometric shape.

In the structural-symbolic currents of Art Nouveau in France, natural forms undergo profound transformations. Characteristic of this style is the subordination of significance to the material itself and its properties, while also referencing the fundamental shape of the object through lines that often radiate from central points, drawing parallels to nerves in an organic system.

The best example of this phenomenon are the decorations of the Parisian metro designed by Hector Guimard.

Hector Guimard, Abesses Paris Metro, 1900. Photo: Steve Cadman via Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0

Despite the differences between the Art Nouveau styles that developed in their own way in various countries, the common element was the expression of the same fundamental idea – the desire to create a “New Art“.

As Art Nouveau gradually expanded its influence and gained popularity, it adopted various names and designations across different countries:

• In England, “Modern Style"

• in Spain, "Modernismo"

• in Germany, "Jugendstil" ("Youth Style")

• in Austria, "Sezessionstil"

• in Italy, "Stile floreala" ("Floral Style").

While the term "Art Nouveau" was widely embraced in France and most Anglo-Saxon countries, initially in France, the label "Modern Style" was also in use. Notably, during the latter years of the 1890s, Art Nouveau was sometimes colloquially called "Style Metro," a reference to the iron railings designed by Hector Guimard for the Paris Metro stations.

Studies by art historians accepted the name Art Nouveau but mostly confined its use to applied arts and architecture. Meanwhile, various national designations remained labels assigned to formal variations developed by different nations.

Ideological Background

At the end of the nineteenth century, there was a growing desire to liberate art from the strongly guarded academism. The awareness that a new century was approaching and a sense of the proximity of a new era aroused hopes for a new art.

Academicism promoted idealism in depicting human figures and historical scenes. It established a hierarchy of subjects, where historical, mythological, and religious painting were considered the highest forms of art, meanwhile portraits and landscapes had lower artistic value. Creators were encouraged to imitate the style and themes of classical art.

Artists were compelled to adhere to established conventions, further leading to a lack of experimentation with new techniques and the absence of shaping an individual artistic style.

It is worth mentioning that "Weltschmerz," decadence, fin-de-siècle, and "nostalgie de la boue" were colloquial expressions accompanied by end-of-century moods that rejected traditional values. People struggled with a sense of emptiness and the senselessness of human existence.

Additionally, literary currents of that time in countries where trends emphasizing irrationalism or mysticism managed to emerge began to consciously oppose naturalism and positivism. They reveal a certain intellectual resignation linked to the psychological impact of the dying century on the young, critically oriented generation.

Positivism was unable to resolve all problems through scientific inquiry; it did not grasp the subtler nuances of human emotions. Young artists argued that positivism created museums, but not art.

The goal now was not, as in the case of academism, the precise reflection of nature or the idealization of characters or myths, but evoking and conveying sensory impressions in a subtle and mysterious manner, as accomplished by renowned poets such as Verlaine, Rimbaud, or Mallarmé.

"New Art" did not strive to convey impressions through external, naturalistic means or by appealing to reason but operated purely on an emotional level.

In the plastic arts, the same ideas were reflected as in literature. The goal was no longer the faithful reproduction of a motif, as objective description yielded to subjectivity. The reaction against naturalism and a conscious pursuit of synthesis, heavily influenced by Schopenhauer, proved crucial for Art Nouveau. Until then, no style was as synthetic and had decorations with such diverse symbolism as Art Nouveau, which created a very distinctive iconography.

The imagination of Art Nouveau artists was stimulated by exotic plants with long stems and delicate flowers. Such unique and unfamiliar blossoms served as symbols of aesthetic delight, exotic charm, and sophistication. They were like heralds of artistic ecstasy that characterized the spirit of the Art Nouveau era.

The three main ideas that form the basis of Art Nouveau ornamentation are the principle of the value of the line, the organic power of plants, and the structure-as-symbol.

1) The theoretical foundation of the cult of the line was a departure from the direct imitation of nature practiced by academicians, as mentioned earlier. Artists began to seek new values in nature, and the significance in nature no longer lay so much in its appearance, but in the psychological factor and its impact on humans.

2) Young artists regarded the organic force of plants as an expression of the highest degree of adaptation in nature, symbolizing life, growth, and the cycle of life. Plant life was seen as a harmonious unity of forms, reflecting the integrity of life. In this way, Art Nouveau not only draws inspiration from nature but also reflects philosophical beliefs about the unity of life and harmony in nature.

3) Art Nouveau artists desired objects to express something more than just themselves, with decoration serving as a symbol. The ornament, along with the shape of the object, was intended to express and symbolize the function of the object.

Inspirations and influences

Art Nouveau would not have spread its wings without earlier tendencies that played a crucial role in its shaping. These tendencies were primarily influenced by Gothic Revival, William Blake, and the Pre-Raphaelites, as well as Japanese and Oriental influences.

The impact of Japanese art led to a radical departure from traditional nineteenth-century European drawing. Text and image merged, creating an artistic synergy previously achieved only in the works of Blake and medieval illuminated manuscripts.

Additionally, the influence of Japanese art also left lasting traces in applied art. The concept of asymmetry impacted furniture, which freed itself from the prevailing rule of symmetry. On the other hand, the overall concept of interior design and the pursuit of integrating space and furnishings, characteristic of Art Nouveau, is partially inspired by Rococo.

It is also worth mentioning the Gothic influences, which were significant for one of the most famous Spanish architects, Antonio Gaudí. He argued that Gothic was the most sublime style, yet incomplete, as it was halted by the Renaissance, which, in Gaudí's view, was "regrettable." Therefore, Gothic architecture is just the beginning, a reference point from which architects should start—not imitate but continue.

Additionally, the dramatic tension of neo-baroque art, expressed in strong light and shade contrasts, as well as the intense use of architectural effects, along with prominent cornices and deep incisions, represents a highly sculptural treatment of form. It is also evident in the inclination of Art Nouveau artists to twist, bend, and shape materials and forms.

As can be seen, Art Nouveau is a highly eclectic style, and it's just some of the earlier trends, such as the Pre-Raphaelites, Japanese art, Gothic, and the dramatic nature of neo-baroque, that have influenced the shaping of this style. Based on diverse inspirations, Art Nouveau works are characterized by a unique blend of forms, ornamentation, and concepts, creating intricate and innovative compositions.

Art Nouveau in Architecture

One distinctive feature of Art Nouveau architecture lies in its ability to translate theoretical structural principles into practical design, highlighting the structural elements of the building, especially iron, in a manner that integrates them visibly into the facade, often for decorative purposes. The ornamentation serves the purpose of symbolizing and emphasizing the underlying structure.

Although the combination of glass and iron existed for a long time, it was only in the 1890s that it began to be treated as a means of expression in architecture. For example, a glass wall, combined with other materials, experienced significant development during the Art Nouveau period.

Another significant feature, as mentioned earlier, was the preference for asymmetry, both in the arrangement of the building's mass and in less important details, such as the layout of windows and doors. This was undoubtedly closely related to a fondness for the medieval era. The use of wide, asymmetrically placed arches, especially in commercial buildings, likely owed some of its existence to the influence of the American architect Richardson.

1) France

One of the prominent French representatives of the Art Nouveau style in architecture was the previously mentioned Hector Guimard, known for creating numerous entrances to the Parisian metro. One of his earliest works in the Art Nouveau style was the Castel Béranger at 16 Rue La Fontaine in Paris. While the building itself is designed in a relatively conventional style, the entrance and its decoration exhibit a rich Art Nouveau style. It features a lavish, abstract, asymmetrical, and dynamic design. With its iron structure, colorful faience tiles, ceiling embellishments, and, most importantly, an intricate interplay of lines and an exuberant design, it epitomizes the essence of Art Nouveau.

H. Guimard, Castel Beranger rue La Fountaine 16, 1894 - 1898. Photo: Groume via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 2.0

H. Guimard, Castel Beranger rue La Fountaine 16, 1894 - 1898. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.0

Another typical feature of Guimard's works is the ornaments resembling Gothic ribbed vaults, embracing the wall surfaces. This is most evident in his designed Parisian residence, Villa Flore

However, it was the Parisian metro stations from 1899 to 1900 that truly solidified Guimard's fame. In these charming structures made of glass and iron, he unleashed his creativity. The lantern shades appear to sprout from pedestals like spring buds, and deep-sea creatures try to unfurl their spiky crests over the balustrades. Every detail is brought together under the common stylistic denominator – Art Nouveau.

Émile André, Maisons Hout, 1903. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.0

In France, particularly in the city of Nancy, there were strong Gothic-influenced tendencies, such as in the works of the prominent architect of the Nancy School, Emile André. Floral decoration prevailed, as seen in buildings like Maison Hout. Window frames and gates give the impression of growing upward like trees, and the projecting peaks are crowned with Gothic florals, with all edges and corners rounded.

Jules Lavirotte, Lavirotte Building, 1901. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.0

In French architecture, especially in Paris, the Art Nouveau style initially blended with diverse stylistic elements, soon evolving into decorative architecture featuring glass and iron. Particularly in the works of Guimard, the structural symbolism of Art Nouveau was expressed in the most vivid manner.

2) Spain

In Spain, Art Nouveau took on a completely different form than in France. It wasn't a movement but rather the result of the individual and imaginative architectural expression of one person. That person was Antoni y Cornet Gaudi, working in a tightly defined geographic area, in the capital of Catalonia, Barcelona. From the 1890s to 1910, he created both sacred and secular masterpieces in the Art Nouveau style.

Antonio Gaudi, Sagrada Familia, 1882—ongoing. Photo: Canaan via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

In the nineties, he became involved in the construction of the Sagrada Familia, a pilgrimage church initiated by the architect Villar in 1884.

The starting point for Gaudi was neogothic; however, sculpture became an integral part of architecture to an unprecedented extent. One could even argue that the architecture itself became sculpture, a plastic art form. The pinnacles of the towers are crowned with elaborate finials, adorned with mosaic on profiled surfaces.

Gaudí, also drawing inspiration from Gothic sacred buildings, based the design of Sagrada Familia on a Latin cross plan with three facades representing the Passion, Nativity, and Glory. Each of them is richly decorated and carries its symbolism. The towers represent apostles, evangelists, Mary, and Jesus.

Characteristic of Sagrada Familia are organic and abstract forms that refer to nature. The organic form of the building and the uniqueness of architectural details are inspired by nature. For this reason, no detail is identical, and each is individually sculpted, mirroring the diversity found in nature.

Antonio Gaudi, Sagrada Familia, 1882—ongoing. Photo: Leandro Neumann Ciuffo via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.0

In the Sagrada Familia, neogothic and Art Nouveau come together to form the most magnificent unity. This work can be considered the most important sacred building erected in the Art Nouveau style.

Among Gaudi's secular buildings, two distinctly stand out: Casa Batlló (1905-1907) and Casa Milà (1905-1907), both in Barcelona, as well as Park Güell (1900-1914), now part of the Barcelona City Park.

In Casa Batlló, the upper part of the building retains a certain moderation, while the lower floors are exceptionally original: openwork, with curved, fluid forms made of stone and oval windows. Inside, Gaudí achieved the full effect of fluidity of movement and spatiality. There's a sensation as if fragments, and even entire rooms, have been washed away by ocean waves.

Antonio Gaudi, Casa Batllo, 1905 — 1907. Photo Canaan via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Casa Milà, built for Roger Segimon de Milà, is an extraordinary residential building whose structure extends almost around two circular courtyards. Thanks to the use of a skeleton construction, Gaudí could work freely, without being constrained by the need to consider load-bearing walls.

In Casa Milà, there is a complete harmony between the building's plan and its facade. The free-flowing, undulating rhythm, devoid of any regular, straight planes, demonstrates the unrestricted utilization of interior space. No angle is straightforward, and no room resembles another in terms of shape.

In this house, every detail — from the iron balustrades resembling colossal marine plants to the robust stone pillars — is entirely subordinated to the desire to achieve a sculptural effect. One could say that the ceilings evoke sandy beaches during low tide, and the portals of internal courtyards are reminiscent of coral formations.

Antonio Gaudi, Casa Mila, 1905 — 1907. Photo: Thomas Ledl via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Casa Milà, and indeed Gaudí's entire architecture, is challenging to describe unequivocally. One might even say that his architecture is "architectural expressionism," and it would be accurate, as Gaudí's architecture simply needs to be experienced. The impression it evokes is truly indescribable.

Antonio Gaudi, Park Guell, 1900 — 1914. Photo: Canaan via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

Park Guell designed by Gaudi holds a special place in the history of gardening and landscape architecture. The entrance building, the gatehouse, grottos, and other elements of the layout evoke the ambiance of an eighteenth-century park — creating an atmosphere full of intimacy.

In a broader context, the park reflects the deepest idea of Art Nouveau — a sublime unity of nature harmonized with art.

Antonio Gaudi, Park Guell, 1900 — 1914. Photo: Fabio Alessandro Locati via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

Gaudí's architecture deserves a separate chapter in the history of architecture, and Art Nouveau itself is too narrow a term to fully capture and describe his works. Additionally, Gaudí was too much of a towering individuality to leave behind successors.

3) Belgium

In Belgium, the architectural innovations of Victor Horta stand out prominently. They are characterized by a lively interplay of lines in vibrant murals, the plasticity and dynamic nature of balustrades, the polychromatic harmony of glazed doors and mosaics, and, importantly, a liberal conception of space, especially within the context of Art Nouveau.

One of the first significant buildings designed by Horta is the house for Professor Tassel, designed in 1892. The horizontal layout of this building deviates from the traditional Belgian scheme — the staircase occupies more space, and the rooms with diverse shapes and dimensions interpenetrate each other.

Victor Horta, Hôtel Tassel, 1892 — 1893. Photo: I, Karl Stas via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

This arrangement enhances the impression of freedom and spaciousness. The facade distinctly reflects the iron structure, playing a compositional role, while the columns in the bay of the first floor, anchored at the base of the cornice beam, reflect neorococo influences.

Additionally, the materials have been subordinated to the decoration. Iron, stone, glass, mosaics, and wood, all contribute to a strongly intertwined linear rhythm.

Also noteworthy is the designed house at 22 Rue Américaine, where the asymmetry of the facade appears to be the most significant feature. The iron structure of the building has been designed freely and utilized as a decorative element.

However, Horty's most splendid contribution to the Art Nouveau style is the design of Hotel Solvay, built for the industrial magnate and chemist Ernest Solvay between 1885 and 1900. The artistic development of the facade, with the use of vertical elements, deviates from the architectural norms of that time. The stylistic unity of the interior, inclusive of furnishings and equipment, distinguishes it within a special category within the Art Nouveau style.

Victor Horta, Hôtel Solvay, 1898 — 1900. Photo: Brigade Piron via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

Art Nouveau quickly gained numerous followers in Belgium, and Brussels became a hub for the new movement. Walking through the streets of this city, we can notice numerous houses designed by architects with long-forgotten names. However, the most prominent Belgian architect who influenced the development of Art Nouveau was undoubtedly Horta.

The achievement of Art Nouveau architecture lies primarily in the development and utilization of architectural and stylistic means of expression, such as the combination of materials, asymmetry, and the ornamental treatment of facades.

Emphasizing the structure along with its decorative and symbolic reference, as well as highlighting the values derived from ornamentation, its arrangement, and mastery in organic drawing — these are probably the most significant achievements of the style, alongside the sculptural treatment of the building.

Art Nouveau was also the first style in which glass and iron were successfully combined to become aesthetic and stylistic means of architectural expression. Additionally, one of the essential and enduring features of this style is the pursuit of achieving a closed architectural form.

Art Nouveau in Applied Arts

Art Nouveau flourished most vibrantly in applied art, where it achieved its greatest distinction within the realm of art history. In many fields, it gained recognition as equally remarkable as outstanding works from historical periods. The need for renewal was mainly felt in applied art. And it's worth noting the Art Nouveau style emerged among the avant-garde artists working in this field at that time.

1) France

France was unquestionably the place where Art Nouveau blossomed most magnificently in applied art. The Parisians not only had a keen sense for fashion trends, but Art Nouveau also met all their requirements: it was an elegantly refined style where high-quality standards were maintained in everything, from jewelry to furniture.

Hector Guimard, Chairs. Photo: Robin Davis via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The most prominent furniture designers of Art Nouveau in Paris were Hector Guimard, de Feure, and Gaillard. Guimard's furniture exemplifies structural symbolism, a trait we could already observe in his architecture. He was not just a master of architectural ornamentation that seamlessly integrated with surface; when examining his furniture, one can perceive structural lines melting into the surface, mysteriously blurring the object's contours.

More importantly, Guimard's furniture aims for cohesion and unity of form, accentuated by the fluid rhythm of individual elements. They also stand as examples of the most generously endowed with imaginative ornamental forms produced by the abstract Art Nouveau style.

In the city of Nancy, emerging as a significant center for Art Nouveau alongside Paris, the School of Nancy played a pivotal role in the development of the movement. Established around 1890, with Émile Gallé as its most prominent figure, this school became a driving force behind the resurgence and advancement of craftsmanship in provincial areas. Situated in the former capital of Lorraine, Nancy became a breeding ground for naturalistic forms in the late nineteenth century, solidifying its position as a key hub for Art Nouveau.

The Ecole de Nancy aimed to support the revival and growth of artisanal skills in the provinces, making it a crucial contributor to the broader Art Nouveau movement outside of Paris.

Émile Gallé, Vase. Photo: The Cleveland Museum of Art via Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0

In his furniture designs, Gallé to some extent remained within the scope of French stylistic traditions. He consistently drew inspiration from earlier styles, often crafting large dressers in the Renaissance style, desks predominantly in the Louis XV style, and chairs in the Louis XVI style. A common characteristic unifying the majority of his furniture, especially the smaller pieces, is the transformation of structural elements - the inherent framework - into stems or branches, emerging from specific points in the construction.

Gallé's furniture earned the name "meubles parlants" — speaking furniture. And rightfully so, as his works became something alive, enclosed within their own floral-plant world, with plant motifs spreading across the entire surfaces of the pieces.

In the Art Nouveau movement, Gallé stands out as a unique and exceptional figure.

Émile Gallé, Console, 1900. Photo: Sailko via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

2) Belgium — Modern Style

The architectural work of Victor Horta has already been discussed, but it's worth examining his contributions to applied arts. Although his expressive style was similar across various artistic disciplines, he truly excelled in objects made of metal — chandeliers, candelabras, wrought ironwork in balcony grilles, or details cast in iron.

Victor Horta, Lampadine, c. 1903. Photo: via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

The most outstanding furniture designers in Belgium were Gustave Serrurier-Bovy and Henry van de Velde.

Serrurier-Bovy exhibited a tendency towards harmoniously balanced asymmetry, which is highly characteristic of his work. This feature, influenced by Japanese aesthetics, may be considered one of his most significant contributions to Art Nouveau furniture design.

The practical aspect of this asymmetry lies in the ability to combine several pieces of furniture into the same structural combination. However, at the beginning of the twentieth century, the decorative style of Serrurier-Bovy underwent simplification, evident in his ornamentation where square and rectangular shapes gradually assumed a more prominent role.

However, Serrurier-Bovy stands as a significant creator in the Belgian variant of Art Nouveau in furniture design.

Gustav Serrurier-Bovy, Furnitues, 1899. Photo: HaguardDuNord via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

In addition to Gustave Serrurier-Bovy, another influential figure, playing a mediating role but with significantly broader international significance, was Henry van de Velde. He conveyed English heritage and Belgian tendencies to other European countries. A characteristic feature of his style, similar to Serrurier-Bovy, is his fascination with structure and construction.

The duality between a straightforward construction shaped by materials such as wood and a curved, undulating design appears to be a particular challenge evident in his furniture designs.

Belgium was the country where the Art Nouveau style developed earliest, but it was quickly relinquished. Van de Velde left the country in 1899 and ceased to play any role in Belgium, while Horta abandoned the style after the turn of the century. Only Serrurier-Bovy consistently continued his creative endeavors until his death in 1910.

3) Great Britain — Glasgow School

Prominent British avant-garde furniture designers originated from circles associated with the Kenton and Company, established in 1890 and renamed the Cotswold School two years later. Among the key artists gathered around it were Ernest and Sidney Barnesley, Reginald Blomfield, Ernest Gimson, and William Lethabby.

Their style was characterized by simplicity and almost complete abandonment of decoration, with a strong emphasis on all structural elements. The aim was to highlight the natural wood structure, giving the furniture a rustic appearance along with distinctive massiveness and weight. Decorative elements mainly included embossed fittings and forged iron, with their simple lines, frequent framing of planes, and restraint from excessive ornamentation giving them a raw and restrained aesthetic.

The most outstanding furniture designer in England was Voysey; his first works date back to 1893. All furniture was typically crafted from oak wood, and decorative additions, such as locks and hinges, were refined to the extent of being a particular attraction.

For Voysey, the starting point was his "own conception of tradition," and in his approach to material and functionalism, he significantly exceeded the boundaries of Art Nouveau. He has been described as the "first proponent of simplicity in interior decoration, whose efforts were crowned with complete success."

However, the purest form of the Art Nouveau style is observed in Glasgow, Scotland, in connection with the activities of the Glasgow School of Art. The leading figure here was Charles Rennie Mackintosh; he and his contemporaries contributed to shaping what we can recognize as the Glasgow School, the Scottish version of Art Nouveau.

Charles Rennie Mackintosh, as one of the most revolutionary British architects of the nineteenth century and a pioneer of modernism, also proved to be the most refined interior decorator and designer in the nineties. He never allowed ornamentation and decoration to overwhelm and take control of the entire object, as was sometimes the case in the continental version of Art Nouveau.

Charles Rennie Mackintosh, The music room at House for An Art Lover. Photo: marsroverdriver via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 2.0

Mackintosh's color scheme was marked by gentle subtlety: white and pearly gray with accents of pink and purple in his distinctive motif of a stylized spherical rose. He was also able to extract deeper meanings through his refined interior decoration while employing forms dominated by straight lines. Thanks to Mackintosh, unity in interior design was reintroduced, and this happened at a very high artistic level.

4) Deutschland — Jugendstil

In 1896, the publication of the magazine "Jugend" began in Munich. Although it was not directly related to applied art, the magazine became a platform for progressive German illustrators.

The first artists in Germany who embarked on the path leading to Jugendstil (the German version of Art Nouveau) include Obrist and Eckmann.

Richard Riemerschmid, Furniture. Photo: Sailko via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

Jugendstil in Germany, more so than Art Nouveau in other countries, was merely a phase—an interlude in the two-dimensional plane. Germans were particularly interested in the structural aspect of the style. This can be partially explained by their late arrival on the scene, making it easier for them to grasp the outlines of future developments.

Additionally, the style itself was not tied to any specific national tradition, as was the case in France, contributing to the Germans' interest in its constructive elements.

5) United States of America

In the United States, the most prominent artist, both in terms of his own artistic achievements and significance for the Art Nouveau style, was Louis Comfort Tiffany. Tiffany, originally trained as a painter, devoted himself exclusively to decorative art from 1878, the year he founded the Louis C. Tiffany Company, Associated Artists.

His primary goal was to explore the possibilities offered by glass. In the eighties and early nineties, Tiffany engaged not only with glass but also with various other fields of applied art.

In 1893, Tiffany designed a house for himself and, in the same year, a chapel for the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Following these projects, he created a grand altar in the crypt of the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine in New York. The decorations in these buildings, characterized by the so-called "Tiffany Byzantinism," as well as some of his most beautiful stained glass windows, stand out with a certain weightiness—a distinctive feature of his architectural designs.

Tiffany first exhibited a collection of blown glass items at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, where they garnered tremendous success. Tiffany's glassware is typically thin and lightweight, often elevated on a tall, slender stem, subtly suggesting an Art Nouveau rhythm resembling flowers and stamens. At times, these pieces reveal oriental influences. Tiffany also embraced accidental effects and crafted items from molded glass.

Louis Comfort Tiffany, Bowl. Photo: Tiffany Studios / Louis Comfort Tiffany via Wikimedia commons, CC0 1.0

The period from 1896 to 1900 marked the golden age of blown glass known as "favrile glass," produced in endless variations of shapes and colors. These ranged from transparent vessels in pastel hues, perched on elongated stems, to bowls with layered glass of the most intense shades, creating almost mystical effects when stacked upon each other.

Louis Comfort Tiffany, Lamp, 1904–15. Photo: via Wikimedia commons, CC0 1.0

To the extent that Art Nouveau represented a transition from the nineteenth-century fascination with historical formulas to the twentieth-century quest for new values and forms, Tiffany played a role as both an innovator and experimenter. Tiffany's contribution to the development of the Art Nouveau style has been recognized as a tremendously significant achievement. His work not only stands on par with the most distinguished and original creations of the time but also serves as an incredibly important milestone in the history of artistic glass.

Summary

Art Nouveau not only introduced a new style of ornamentation but also revolutionized its function. It aimed to seamlessly integrate form and decoration, making the object itself inherently decorative. Simultaneously, emphasis was placed on strategically placing ornaments to enhance the overall harmony between the ornament and the object's surface. It wasn't just about the ornament; it was about achieving a cohesive blend with the object and its surface.

Additionally, Art Nouveau developed a technique to emphasize the connection between the decorated and undecorated surface, creating a tension between the surface and the ornament. The experimental nature of Art Nouveau led to the emergence of many new material combinations, and at the same time, less precious materials like wrought iron, copper, and various semi-precious stones experienced a renaissance.

In Art Nouveau furniture, craftsmanship played a paramount role. A fresh perspective was applied to the construction of furniture, leading to the creation of new types of pieces. For example, Riemerschmid's chair with a slanted crossbar running from the back edge of the seat to the lower part of the front leg was introduced.

An important innovation was the idea of combining various furniture pieces as elements of interior unity. Art Nouveau, in contrast to the disintegrating tendencies of historicism, reintroduced artistic and spatial unity to interior decoration.

Art Nouveau led to a revival in all fields of applied arts, but in none of them did it achieve such a flourishing, rich, imaginative, and independently fruitful development as it did in furniture design, jewelry, goldsmithing, glassware, and wrought ironwork.

The Art Nouveau Tendencies in Painting

In the 1890s, the term Art Nouveau or Jugendstil was originally used to describe only applied art. Even though Art Nouveau didn't establish its own language in the realm of painting, it independently found its reflection in linear symbolism.

In the early stages of European post-Impressionist painting, notable differences emerged in contrast to Impressionist ideas. Many of the Impressionists themselves began to move away from Impressionism. This reaction primarily pertained to the disintegration of form.

The object dissolving in the atmosphere ceased to be the sole focus; a new form was brought to life, especially the object's outline – soon, the contour itself acquired its own artistic value.

The themes shifted from everyday life to more abstract and often symbolic concepts. Artists frequently moved beyond simply imitating nature and instead creatively transformed and reinterpreted it in various innovative ways.

Although the main trends in the development of European painting, from Neo-Impressionism to Synthetism, Nabis, Symbolism, Primitivism, and Fauvism, evolved separately from Art Nouveau, the influence of this style is evident in the painting of most national schools. Linear symbolism developed in the works of various artists, where line and contour carried not only defining but also deeper meanings, expressing the essence of the subject. It was this very form of linear symbolism, interconnected with Expressionism that represented Art Nouveau's most profound and impactful contribution to the art of that period.

1) France (Pont-Aven School, Nabis movement, French symbolism, Fauvism)

In 1901, Richard Muther dedicated a chapter to French Symbolism titled "Triumph of the Line" in his book on 19th-century French painting. This title aptly captures the essence of French painting during that era. The synthetic tendencies and cloisonnism in France had roots in a reaction against Impressionism—opposing the fading of motifs, linear perspective, line, form, and resisting the lack of substantial content.

A novel visual concept, highlighting the intrinsic value of the line, started to dominate. In 1889, Paul Gauguin, a key figure in the Pont-Aven group closely associated with the Nabis, created the "Yellow Christ." The emphasis on line, contour, and plane in this painting contributes to its distinctive "flat" quality. To define the plane, the artist introduced a clearly outlined contour.

Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ, 1889 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

"What is referred to as cloisonnism is the mania for using wide, dark-blue spots to emphasize the shape,” declared Paul Serusier, the organizer of the Nabis, who adopted this technique from Gauguin.

In the years 1889-1890, synthetism developed consciously among the members of the Pont-Aven group, with Gauguin as the dominating personality. The force of expression manifested itself in angular and bold lines, simplified colors, and color patches that achieved full resonance in Gauguin's works.

The significant influence of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec on Art Nouveau is evident in poster art and painting, especially in portraits of women, interpreting the fin-de-siècle Frenchwoman's type with subtlety surpassing his contemporaries, at times approaching caricature. His distinctive portrait of Yvette Guilbert is particularly significant.

Paul Ranson, The Blue Room, c.1900 via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

French symbolists developed a set of symbols where not only the line and contour but also the plane itself served as an expressive element. In their pursuit of two-dimensionality, the symbolists achieved monumentality, enriching art with new meanings and content.

Henri Matisse, La famille du peintre, 1911. Photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra via Wikimedia commons,CC BY-SA 4.0

In the paintings of the Fauvist group, especially in the works of Derain and Matisse from around 1905, we find these very characteristics, along with a sense of figural, rhythmic composition, following the footsteps back to Art Nouveau.

2) Flemish and Dutch Symbolism

Foremost among the symbolists in Belgium was the painter Fernand Khnopff, and his close connections with poets elucidate the literary symbolism in his art. His works often encapsulate a fusion of visual and literary elements.

Fernand Khnopff, Caress of the Sphinx, 1896 via Wikimedia Commons, Public domain

Concurrently, Jan Toorop emerged as the Dutch counterpart to Khnopff, embracing symbolism around 1890-1891. Notably, Toorop's canvas "Breaking Faith," created in 1891, harmonizes with slender, emaciated figures depicted in rhythmic, linear movement. Suffering serves as a fundamental component of the painting, with the figures gazing forward, seemingly towards eternity, their eyes mysteriously closed.

Over the next few years, Toorop produced a series of paintings containing varying degrees of mystical or religious themes. In his work "Girl with Swans" from 1894, an exquisite, flowing line, elongated shapes, and rhythmic movement are discernible.

Jan Toorop, Desire and Satisfaction, 1893 via Wikimedia Commons, Public domain

In the context of the Netherlands, linear rhythm in Art Nouveau held more significance in drawing than in painting. Simultaneously, Dutch symbolism, characterized by strong literary underpinnings, demonstrated a clear influence of Art Nouveau in its language of forms and emphasis on the natural value of the line. This convergence of symbolism and Art Nouveau principles is evident in the works of Khnopff and Toorop, where visual and literary expressions intertwine to create a nuanced and captivating artistic narrative.

3) German Expressionism and Viennese Secession

"Wave of vitality from the North, but also the tragic sense of life saturated with vitality," wrote Herbert Read about Munch, in whose works, man and his passions rose to the rank of a central theme of his creativity.

The paintings he created under the influence of Art Nouveau attest that he was an artist endowed with outstanding talent. Not only could he give the line a completely individual, distinctive formal and expressive value, but he also succeeded in expressing in the paintings deep ideological sense.

No one besides him immersed so deeply in the fin-de-siècle mood.

Working for the theater, Munch caught enthusiasm for modern trends in music, although the strongest intellectual development was influenced by Nietzsche. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Munch heard an echo of his own ideas about the creative artist and his position in society — about genius as a lonely, tragic figure, explaining life through art and ultimately annihilated in the process of sacrificing one's own body and blood.

He expressed these ideas in Funeral March, 1897, where he depicted a coffin carried high by naked women.

Equally characteristic is his concept of a woman, reflecting an ambivalent attitude, a mixture of devotion and fear, making her both Madonna and Vampire.

The titles of the paintings themselves — The Kiss, Evening, Melancholy, Fear, Evening on Karl Johan Street, Greeting — from the years between 1890 and 1892 speak volumes.

Edvard Munch, Madonna, 1894 — 1895 via Wikimedia commons, Public Domain

From 1891 onwards, there is a certain change in Munch's style; he abandoned neo-impressionism for much greater formal discipline. However, it was only in The Scream that all the hitherto sporadic efforts to simplify the form, which can be traced back to the second half of the 1880s, merged in one work.

Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

Ornamental forms in the spirit of Art Nouveau reach deep beyond pure decorativeness; they are also carriers of content. Additionally, Munch, through lines and contours, elevated landscape painting to the level of spiritual experience, successfully linking figures with the landscape so that the landscape expressed the psychological state of the characters.

Viennese Secession — the dominant figure of this movement was Klimt, a remarkable interpreter of female figures, whose nudes and portraits are saturated with sensual delight. He is known for placing his figures in an abstract space. Klimt was a virtuoso of decorativeness — often using gilding and gold leaf. However, he achieves a purely formal fusion without creating a close connection between the depicted figure and the motif — paying little attention to the creation of deeper meaning.

Gustav Klimt, Judith II,1909 via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Summary

When analyzing the role of Art Nouveau in the development of painting, the conclusion arises that this style proved to be a reaction against certain aspects of Impressionist painting. It was essentially a response to the disintegration of form and line. After the disintegrating tendencies in painting of the 1870s and 1880s, a sense of contour was restored.

The revival of power in contour and line can be identified in two tendencies. Firstly, the line evocatively captured the atmosphere of the painting, and secondly, the line began to invoke moods in the painting through ornamental values.

In the first case, new sources of inspiration were drawn upon, especially in landscape and figurative painting, where the unity of man and his environment became a precursor to expressionism. Meanwhile, the second tendency, emphasizing decorative and ornamental values, heralded abstract painting.

While it may be challenging to speak of the existence of an Art Nouveau in painting, the style's inherent tendencies were clearly visible and, as it turned out, would have a significant impact on the future of European painting.

The Art Nouveau Trends in Sculpture

Sculpture in the 1870s and 1880s was generally influenced by neobaroque and realistic tendencies and often expressed literary themes. It was also a time when Impressionism gained fame in Europe, and it's worth noting that neobaroque and Impressionism seemed to share many commonalities in their concept of form.

Both neobaroque and Impressionist sculpture are inherently non-static. Figures are typically depicted in motion, and both in form and content, these sculptures strive to engage with their surroundings. Through open form and the play of light and shadow, sculpture commands space.

The dynamic masses, open and intricate composition, together create a tangled and jagged outline, which, in turn, received a reaction in the 1890s.

In contrast to the open form of the previous period, there was a shift towards closed form, with a focus on seeking static elements for their inherent merits. The contour began to adhere closely to the figure, tightly encircling it. Granite started to be used, and wax, which was once very fashionable, was abandoned. This reflected a desire to return to closed form and give the sculpture a monumental expression. Additionally, significant attention was devoted to the sculpture's connection with its base.

Sculptors aimed to have the statue rise from its own base, from the material itself, whether it was stone or bronze. They gave the base a distinctive, Art Nouveau-inspired shape, especially in the fluid contours of the lower sections, often creating the impression that it supported the statue's weight and transferred it to the ground.

Motifs characteristic of the 1890s bore no resemblance to those of the 1870s and 1880s. Primarily, less anecdotal and narrative themes were chosen. Allegory, mythology, and history took a backseat. With an emphasis on visual values, content seemed less significant. A new range of topics emerged, drawn from the depths of human psychology. Additionally, interest was directed towards the cycle of human life and the relationship between humans and nature.

1) Georges Minne — Belgium

The most prominent sculptor of this period was the Belgian artist Georges Minne. In 1898, Minne completed a work that was to become the masterpiece of his life, as well as a masterpiece of Art Nouveau sculpture, "Fountain with Kneeling Youngsters.”

Georges Minne, Fountain of Youth. Photo: Rainer Halama via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

In the fountain, all the youths cross their arms on their chests, closing the movement of their bodies in a gesture of placing their hands on their shoulders. Each of these figures individually would be enclosed within its own sphere, but in the Fountain, this motif is repeated five times in the circle of kneeling youths.

The gesture of each of them only slightly deviates from the main motif, varying in the direction of turning their heads and the placement of their hands. They are connected by a graceful rhythm, running from one figure to another, simultaneously maintaining an overall impression of stasis.

Completely new character was given to the lines, creating a closed outline of the contour.

2) Ernst Barlach — Germany

In the German cultural sphere, an outstanding sculptor was Ernst Barlach. In the second half of the 1890s, he was a writer for the magazine "Jugend," and his first sculptures date precisely from this period. However, it was only around 1902 that his stylized language of forms emerged, shaped under the influence of decorative tendencies.

Barlach's mature style is fully manifested in "The Avenger," around 1914. Enclosed form and an extremely simple contour are characteristic features of Barlach's entire body of work.

Although the line often plays a dominant role, this artist already leads us towards expressionism.

Ernst Barlach, The Avenger, 1914 via Wikimedia commons, CC0 1.0

3) Vigeland — Scandinavia

Norwegian sculptor Gustav Vigeland, in the early years, leaned towards Impressionism, but in 1893, after a brief visit to Paris, his works began to show a reaction against Impressionistic modeling. In later sculptures from the 1890s, a repeated use of the closed-line effect became evident.

The linearity of the contour, the pursuit of a closed, sculptural effect, the method of grouping figures, treating surfaces, and connecting the statue with its base make Gustav Vigeland one of the most typical representatives of the new stylistic tendencies in sculpture during the 1890s.

As mentioned earlier, artists of this period were interested in depicting the connections between humans and nature. This theme was embraced by Vigeland, who envisioned representing universal aspects of life, giving it a new form in the group of bronze trees surrounding the Fountain created between 1900 and 1914. The fountain depicts the connection between man, nature, and woman.

Gustav Vigeland, Fontaine. Photo: Annie Dalbéra via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.0

Summary

While it is challenging to describe Art Nouveau sculpture since there was no "conscious" Art Nouveau school in sculpture, nor can sculpture be considered to have actively participated in the evolution of this style. Despite this, the stylistic features and tendencies of Art Nouveau are reflected in the sculpture of the 1890s and must have influenced the development of sculptural art, especially through characteristic features such as a closed form, the pursuit of synthesis, emphasis on the inherent value of lines, and a preference for a flexible, clearly defined contour.

Art Nouveau was instrumental in liberating sculpture from naturalism, as well as from Impressionistic and neo-Baroque tendencies.

Decline and Achievements of Art Nouveau

1) Decline

The decline of Art Nouveau was swift. The popularity it enjoyed in Paris in 1900 vanished within two years, and by 1902 in Turin, it was clear to everyone that its period of greatest development had passed. Artists, one after another, distanced themselves from Art Nouveau, changing the language of forms and moving towards greater simplicity, practicality, and reduced decorative elements. Additionally, when Galle died in 1904, the inspiration from the Nancy school, which appealed to traditional drawing, disappeared with him. In Germany, the most prominent artists abandoned Jugendstil shortly after the turn of the century.

Art Nouveau vanished so quickly because it failed to satisfy the pan-European desire for the creation of a lasting, international style. However, the question arises: why did this happen?

There are several reasons. Firstly, the theory of art and architecture quickly transcended the boundaries set by Art Nouveau because this style failed to provide a solution to the challenge of effectively combining mass production with aesthetic standards.

The theory of Art Nouveau relied on the artist's personality and their individual approach to the artifact. In the nineteenth-century society, it was entirely natural to turn to the artist for formal solutions required by mass production and to emphasize the beauty of form.

Unfortunately, artists dedicated to pure art did not develop the necessary approach for designing everyday use objects and were unable to address the challenges posed by machinery. Soon, solutions to these issues were proposed by the Bauhaus movement.

Moreover, the functionalist principle of constructional integrity was never truly embraced by Art Nouveau artists. While constructional issues proved to be interesting, they couldn't be an end in themselves. The focus was not on highlighting the construction but on incorporating it into the entire decorative system. In short, Art Nouveau was the first and last style dependent on ornamentation.

Additionally, from the moment of its mature appearance in 1892-1893, Art Nouveau spread with astonishing speed, advertised in all magazines, sometimes becoming more of a trend than a style. This perspective reinforced its purely external and decorative aspect. The audience generally couldn't even grasp its true significance or recognize the aspirations to create a new artistic expression.

The inability to recognize the formative possibilities inherent in machinery and mass production is also linked to social issues. Art Nouveau failed to provide solutions for form-related problems concerning broader layers of society, disappointing many more radically thinking artists who expected it to do so. In its refined form, it was challenging to see hope for solving social problems, so it remained a style for the wealthy, catering mainly to the needs of the upper classes. It was predominantly a jewelry style, a luxurious furniture style, designed for connoisseurs of glassware and elegant fabrics.

It is worth noting that at the same time, symbolism in art was also rejected, so the symbolic aspect of Art Nouveau lost its significance. Since Art Nouveau was an anti-direction, a reaction to what came before, it ceased to have any meaning when the entire stylistic chaos of the nineteenth century was swept away.

2) Achievements

From the full combativeness, saturated with the spirit of the search for movement that emerged throughout Europe in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, an independent style gradually emerged. It flourished in the second half of those years, reaching its peak around 1900, after which there was a rapid decline, although this style in its continental version persisted until the First World War.

Art Nouveau paved the way for the development of modern architecture and many branches of applied art. In this field, it was truly something entirely new. Instead of an antiquarian attitude, dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century, the focus shifted to purely aesthetic properties. Moreover, many less significant areas of applied art were rejuvenated—this had extremely significant implications, and the effects of this phenomenon are still felt today. Every branch of applied art swelled with new life and experienced a renaissance.

Art Nouveau also encompassed many concepts of well-planned spatial decoration, where individual elements became part of a whole, akin to the unified spatial concept of the Rococo style lost in the early moments of the Victorian era. This principle formulated the idea of cohesive interior decoration. A completely new, elegant color scheme emerged, based on olive-green, creamy, pinkish-gray, pale purple, and milky-white tones—in short, light dispelled darkness.

In architecture, the Art Nouveau style holds a significant place, but its historical significance is limited both chronologically and in terms of the actual number of outstanding works realized during these years. However, the small number of remarkable works that have been preserved to this day fully deserves a distinct place in the history of architecture.

The importance attributed to sculptural values can probably be considered one of the factors that most contributed to the emergence of modern architecture, and the interest that Le Corbusier had in sculptural forms (for example, Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp, 1949-1954) may reflect these very qualities. Equally important was the discovery and cult of structure, as well as the utilization of its possibilities as new means of artistic expression.

On the other hand, Art Nouveau sculpture, while deviating in form from linearism, places emphasis on a closed contour and a decisive definition of the boundaries of form, which, so clearly evident at the turn of the century, fits within the framework of Art Nouveau alone.

During this period, attention was drawn to figures kneeling, sitting, bent, and stooped, rather than in motion or standing upright. In a broader sense, Art Nouveau helped reintroduce fundamental sculptural characteristics such as stability, rhythm, and monumentality.

In Art Nouveau painting, the natural value of the line and its suggestive power were utilized to emphasize the mood within the subject, foreshadowing the emergence of Expressionism. Equally significant for painting was the emphasis on the values of ornamentation as a primary objective. Shapes, colors, and lines were given significance independently of content, derived solely from their decorative function. These tendencies can be traced from the Glasgow School to the Vienna Secession.

Even though the Art Nouveau style in architecture and painting points the way to the twentieth century, it does not belong to that century. It also does not belong to the nineteenth century. It is an independent, transitional phenomenon and a distinct style. Its main task was to rid itself of historical heritage and create something entirely new; it was simultaneously a harbinger of modernism.

But not only because of its historical significance but also due to its artistic merits, Art Nouveau has every right to occupy a distinct place in the history of art—and even more so in the history of styles and applied art.

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Summary

Although Art Nouveau did not manage to satisfy the pan-European desire for creating a lasting, international style, it holds a significant place in the history of art. It represents a break from the academic rigidity of the 19th century.

One of the reasons why Art Nouveau didn't endure for long is the fact that this style failed to provide a solution for how to connect mass production with aesthetic standards.

The theories of Art Nouveau were based on the artist's personality and their approach to work. Unfortunately, the creators did not develop the necessary approach required for designing everyday objects, nor could they address the challenges posed by machines.

Art Nouveau was the first, and in many ways, the last style that heavily relied on ornamentation and decorations.

Art Nouveau never became a mass style; it was more for the privileged. However, from a movement full of energy and a spirit of exploration in late 19th-century Europe, it gradually evolved into its own distinct style. It's also worth noting that Art Nouveau laid the groundwork for the development of modern architecture and numerous branches of applied arts.

Art Nouveau was an independent and transitional phenomenon that aimed to break free from academic traditions and introduce something new. Simultaneously, this style foreshadowed modernism. Due to its historical significance and artistic merits, Art Nouveau rightfully claims a distinct place in the annals of art history, despite its relatively short-lived existence.

In conclusion, Art Nouveau epitomizes a short yet captivating chapter in the annals of art and design. Its romantic, nature-inspired designs remain a lasting source of inspiration and fascination. As we delve into the world of Art Nouveau, we gain a profound appreciation for the era when artists and craftsmen boldly broke free from traditional constraints, paving the way for a more imaginative and harmonious realm of aesthetics.