Used photo: Lelikron via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

At the beginning of the 20th century, in Germany after World War I, a revolutionary movement and school emerged, leaving a memorable mark on the realms of art, design, and architecture. This school, known as Bauhaus, transcended traditional boundaries, boldly embracing the fusion of form and function. It became a radical experiment challenging conventional norms and ushering in a new era of creative expression.

Bauhaus, although closed by the Nazis in 1933 after only fourteen years of existence, remains the most significant experiment of the 20th century in the world of design. The ideologies, beliefs, and teaching methods developed there have not lost their relevance to this day.

The establishment of the school marked the culmination of all the reform efforts of the 19th and early 20th centuries, aiming to reconcile artistic values with industrial production. The founder of the school, Walter Gropius, believed in the "fundamental unity of the arts" and, to prove this, surrounded himself with the most talented individuals of his generation, such as Klee, Kandinsky, and Moholy-Nagy.

Bauhaus was founded in April 1919. Throughout its fourteen years of existence, it faced challenges such as a lack of funds, hostile attitudes from authorities, and internal disputes. By 1933, when it was ultimately closed by the Nazis, it had changed its location three times and graduated only 500 students. Despite these difficulties, in this short period, it became a legend, and today, over 100 years since its establishment, it remains a symbol of a modern approach to architecture and design.

This German school signified the integration of all disciplines of visual arts, crafts, and architecture into one institution, which began its operations during a period of renewed optimism and idealism following the conclusion of World War I. Bauhaus aimed to educate a new generation of architects and designers who would meet or even surpass the demands of the 20th century.

The goal was to use scientific, technical, intellectual, and aesthetic achievements to create an environment that would meet both the material and spiritual needs of humanity. One can only speculate to what extent these tasks would have been accomplished, as the Bauhaus was closed before it could consolidate its ideals.

Nevertheless, Bauhaus stands as a milestone in the history of humanity's grappling with technology. Despite numerous inconsistencies, ideological and practical, Bauhaus achieved more than any other organization of the 19th or 20th century in reconciling the contradictions between humans and the environment they created.

Joost Schmidt, *Poster for the Bauhaus Exhibition in Weimar*, 1923. Photo: Susanlenox via Flickr, Public domain

Over fourteen years of existence, Bauhaus underwent multiple changes in its character. As Gropius formulated it:

“Ideas of cultural import cannot spread and develop faster than the new society itself which they seek to serve. However, I think it is not an overstatement when I maintain that the community of the Bauhaus, through the wholeness of its approach, has helped to restore architecture and design of today as a social art.“ — Walter Gropius, The Scope of Architecture, 1955

Bauhaus aimed to create innovative craft guilds, dismantling the class distinctions that had traditionally separated craftsmen from artists. The vision was for artists and craftsmen to collaborate in shaping a new 'structure of the future,' seamlessly integrating architecture, sculpture, and painting into a cohesive whole.

Origins and Background

It is worth noting that Gropius' views on industrial design were shaped by the ideals represented by many reformers striving to find a way to unite the world of art with the world of labor.

Throughout the 19th century, the development of mechanization troubled architects and sociologists. In England, which felt the impacts of the Industrial Revolution first, the artistic elite strongly opposed the invasion of industry. However, while innovative architects were shaping a new vision of architecture using glass and steel, the "official" architects preferred to emulate John Ruskin in his belief that greatness lies in reconstructing old forms.

Many official architects claimed that society did not need a new architectural style, as the already recognized architectural forms were good enough for society and far better than what we could create ourselves. Additionally, this approach was reinforced by traditional teaching methods in European academies of fine arts, where the blind imitation of old styles was rarely questioned.

Many also believed that only dedicated craftsman, with their hands-on approach, could produce the highest quality work. They argued that machine production inevitably led to a decline in aesthetic quality. Furthermore, they contended that individuals surrounded by such unattractive surroundings lacked an appreciation for beauty.

It's worth noting the significant influence of the German architect Hermann Muthesius, whose critique of Art Nouveau, active role in establishing the Deutscher Werkbund, and contributions to the evolution of modernist architecture have left a lasting impact on the Bauhaus movement.

Founded in 1907 in response to Hermann Muthesius's proposal, the Deutscher Werkbund was an organization that brought together architects, artists, and engineers. The Werkbund's ideas and activities had a significant impact on the development of modern architecture in Germany and neighboring countries.

Muthesius spent several years in London and returned to Germany with new architectural concepts and a belief in the power of mass production. What he witnessed in England left a profound impression on him. Upon his return to Germany in 1903, he began popularizing his ideas through lectures, books, and brochures.

Convinced that it was possible to reconcile industry and craftsmanship, he initiated a closer connection between them. It is worth mentioning that, according to him, mass production required standardization, leading to the necessity of adopting precise canons, similar to classical architecture.

Therefore, modern architecture, along with the Werkbund, moved towards standardization, as only standardization can establish a universally accepted style.

Peter Behrnes, *Turbine Factory*, 1909. Photo: Doris Antony via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The Turbine Factory, designed by Peter Behrens, a founding member of the German Werkbund, is not yet entirely modernist. It has a neoclassical form with a slight rusticated appearance but it’s one of the first large buildings that initiated a new direction, utilizing glass and steel on a large scale.

It is worth mentioning the first and grounbreaking Werkbund Exhibition of 1914 in Cologne. This exhibition was a triumph for the Werkbund, and some building projects served as evidence that a style corresponding to contemporary technology had finally been achieved.

Among these buildings was the Glass Pavilion designed by Bruno Taut, which also serves as an example of expressionist architecture, and the Factory and Office Building designed by Walter Gropius and his partner Adolf Meyer.

Bruno Taut, *Glass Pavilion for Werkbund Exhibition*, 1914. Photo via Wikimedia commons, Public Domain

Walter Gropius and Alfred Meyer, *Fagus Factory*, 1911. Photo: Carsten Janssen via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 2.0 DE

It is also worth mentioning that three years earlier, Gropius and Meyer built the Fagus Factory in Alfeld, and with these two buildings Gropius earned a reputation as one of the most prominent architects of the 20th century.

He also anticipated his time by designing these buildings, as in both of them, he applied glass and steel in a way not previously encountered.

Before Bauhaus, 1907 — 1918

In 1914, Gropius, who was 31 years old, was proposed to take over the School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar. He was the son of an architect and the great-nephew of Martin Gropius, a fairly well-known 19th-century architect, who designed the Applied Arts Museum in Berlin.

Walter Gropius began his architectural studies in Berlin and Munich, but his practical training commenced in Peter Behrens' office in 1907. Gropius couldn't have found a more favorable environment, as Behrens had just started working for AEG, engaging not only in architecture but also in design. In his studio, some of the most renowned architects of the next generation began their careers.

Soon after Gropius joined, a young Mies van der Rohe also began working there, and Le Corbusier spent several months in the office as well. Gropius later emphasized that he owed much to Behrens, acknowledging that Behrens was the first one to introduce him to a logical and systematic approach to solving architectural problems.

Additionally, they shared the belief that modern construction techniques must be reflected in architecture, and, for that purpose, they aimed to create innovative and unprecedented forms. As Gropius admitted, this became an obsession for him.

Furthermore, in implementing this theory, he went further than Behrens, who, despite his pioneering role before World War I, never completely severed ties with the classical tradition in architecture.

It is worth mentioning again the Turbine Factory designed by Peter Behrens, remained pseudo-classical in form. However, Gropius, from the very beginning of his career, could see all the possibilities that new materials and techniques offered to architects.

Walter Gropius had ideas about industrializing construction, which could be achieved by using the same standard components in every building. It would also mean that the costs could be reduced through mass production, consequently lowering the rental fees.

Additionally, it would be possible to generate an infinite number of variations for each type of plan through different combinations of these same standard components.

We can say that Gropius anticipated the challenges that 20th-century designers faced.

Walter Gropius and Alfred Meyer, *Fagus Factory*, 1911. Photo: Clemensfranz via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The facade of the main building of the Fagus factory consisted of a glass protective wall supported by narrow steel window posts. Gropius didn't apply any supports at the corners to emphasize the transparency of the structure, which was something entirely new at that time. Similarly, in the model factory for the Werkbund Exhibition, staircases on both sides of the administrative block are enclosed in cylindrical, glazed towers, allowing the internal structure to be visible.

In both of these buildings, Gropius used construction techniques and spatial solutions that were not fully developed until the 1930s.

Gropius believed that the artist possesses the power to breathe life into a lifeless machine product and that the artist's sensitivity must be combined with technical knowledge to create new forms in architecture and design.

Such beliefs were widespread in Germany around 1914, and thanks to this, Gropius became the successor to van de Velde, who had previously contributed to the revival of art and industry, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Werkbund.

Van de Velde was born in 1863 and started as a painter. In the 1890s, he gained fame throughout Europe as an architect and designer, working in the Art Nouveau style. Even when de Velde was associated with Art Nouveau, his imagination was ignited by the possibilities that machinery held. Mechanization instilled him with fear, yet at the same time, he appreciated its societal value.

Designers associated with Art Nouveau rejected mass production, creating exclusively for the wealthy elite. Van de Velde believed that properly utilized machinery could bring about a revolution in architecture and design.

Anticipating the ideals of the Werkbund, de Velde opted for a logical structure of products, uncompromising logic in using the materials, and a proud and sincere presentation of work processes.

It is also worth mentioning that World War I and the prevailing ideologies of the time had a tremendous impact on Gropius, intensifying his idealism. He stated that there are no architects currently and that he is paving the way for those who will deserve this title in the future. Moreover, his belief in responsibility for his own and future generations became even stronger.

According to Gropius, an architect is someone who creates gardens in deserts. Additionally, he maintained that an architect cannot hope to realize his ideas until he effectively influence their country's industry to the extent that it leads to the establishment of a new school of design.

To achieve this, it would require the formation of a complete team of collaborators and assistants -- individuals who would not act automatically like an orchestra obedient to the conductor's baton but independently, closely collaborating with each other to achieve common goals.

And so began the history of Bauhaus, a revolutionary school of design that was founded on April 1, 1919, in Weimar through the merger of two schools: the Academy of Fine Art and the School of Arts and Crafts.

Bauhaus in Weimar (1919 — 1925)

To realize his ideas, Gropius had to create an entirely new type of school for architecture and design. In March 1919, Gropius gave the combined schools the name Das Staatliche Bauhaus, and his appointment as director was signed in April. In the same month, he wrote the manifesto stating that the complete building is the ultimate goal of the visual arts.

Heinz Nösselt with figures by Josef Hartwig, *Chess Table*, 1924. Photo: Noahhoward via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Gropius stated that architects, painters, and sculptors must, above all, return to craftsmanship because art is not a profession, and therefore, there is no fundamental difference between an artist and a craftsman. An artist is, in fact, an inspired craftsman. In rare cases, this inspiration may turn a work into a masterpiece, but the essence of every artist lies in the excellence of craftsmanship, which is the source of creative imagination.

Gropius envisioned new craft guilds without class divisions separating the craftsman from the artist. He aimed to collaboratively design and create a new future, one that would integrate architecture, sculpture, and painting into a unified whole.

Bauhaus started enrolling students in a program designed to break away from traditional academic norms, with no restrictions based on nationality or age. The program attracted participants from Germany, aged 17 to 40, with at least half having military service.

In theory, Gropius had the ideal conditions to start his work—a new school, the possibility of hiring new staff, and enthusiastic young students. However, in practice, the situation became somewhat more challenging, as sharp attacks from the Weimar government began almost immediately after Gropius started his activities.

Wasilly Kandinsky, *Composition* VIII, 1923 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

The Bauhaus program was based on a new approach—teaching by two masters, one artist, and one technician, along with both practical and theoretical preparation.

Practical sessions involved familiarizing students with materials and production processes, while the teaching of form occurred in three branches: observation—the study of nature, material analysis; representation—geometry, theory of construction, project drawing, and modeling; and composition—theory of space, color, and composition.

The student had to go through three courses. The first, a famous preliminary course lasting six months, was designed to liberate the students from conventional knowledge acquired thus far, immersing them in the theory and practice of the workshop. After completing this course, the student moved on to one of the workshops. Education within the workshop spanned three years, culminating in a comprehensive examination and the achievement of the journeyman's diploma.

Paul Klee, *Villa R*, 1919 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

Gropius persuaded Wassily Kandinsky to leave Russia and join Bauhaus to teach young students. The employment of figures like Klee and Kandinsky was a triumph for Gropius, as he managed to gather collaborators known for their originality and intellect.

Gropius and teachers aimed to revolutionize students' perspectives on the world through theoretical courses.

Each Bauhaus student, carrying the "burden" of accumulated knowledge, had to get rid of it before gaining the ability to perceive and cultivate his own authentic understanding.

Moreover, at Bauhaus, a strong focus was placed on studying materials and grasping their interconnections. If a student could accurately depict a given material down to the finest details, it meant a student had a thorough understanding of the material.

Oskar Schlemmer, *Bauhaus Logo*, 1922 via Wikimedia commons, CC0

It is also worth mentioning that the early 20th century was a period when many art movements and new design schools emerged.

One of the art movements that had a significant influence on the philosophy of modern design was De Stijl, which originated in the Netherlands around the same time as Bauhaus.

Led by Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, De Stijl was recognized for its use of primary colors, bold lines, and simplified shapes.

Theoretically, both the De Stijl group and Bauhaus aimed to achieve similar goals—integrating art with life and technology to create optimal environments for 20th-century humanity.

Theo van Doesburg, a key figure in the De Stijl movement, argued for the integration of art and life, rejecting the idea that art and life should remain separate realms.

He emphasized that the traditional concept of "art" as an illusion detached from real life must fade away.

The word "art" became an empty sound for van Doesburg and the De Stijl Movement. They opposed spontaneity and the dominance of nature, asserting that constructing a new object requires a method based on objective criteria rather than artistic babble.

Van Doesburg arrived in Weimar in 1921, but he was bothered by the fact that Bauhaus sought self-definition—constantly defining its own character, goals, and teaching methodology, or creating a total work of art (Gesamtkunstwerk), which Doesburg considered as an "artistic babble."

As a consequence, in 1922, he decided to establish a competing school in Weimar, attracting many students from Bauhaus.

Walter Gropius, Adolf Meyer, *Sommerfield House*, 1921. Photo: Carl Rogge via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

One of the significant moments in the history of Bauhaus during the Weimar period was the first exhibition in 1923, which illustrated Bauhaus's approach to designing the entire living environment, integrating art, craftsmanship, and architecture with everyday life.

George Mucha and Adolf Meyer, *Haus am Horn*, 1923. Photo: sailko via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The pride of the exhibition was Haus am Horn—an experimental house designed by Georg Muche and Adolf Meyer, entirely furnished with items from the Bauhaus workshops.

The Haus am Horn is an example of a new style formed by combining aesthetic values with craftsmanship. The house still exists and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1996.

Additionally, for this exhibition, Joost Schmidt designed the previously mentioned poster, and Wassily Kandinsky also created a famous postcard for that occasion.

Wassily Kandinsky, *Postcard for the Bauhaus Exhibition in Weimar*, 1923 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

In 1924, a conservative government took power in Thuringia, accusing Bauhaus of spreading socialist ideas and subversion. As a result, Bauhaus was closed in 1925, and in the same year, it relocated to Dessau with all its equipment.

Bauhaus in Dessau (1925 — 1933)

From 1925 to 1928, when Gropius left the school, Bauhaus continued to develop based on the foundations established in Weimar. Free from bureaucratic pressures, they could focus on "creating typical forms that meet technical, aesthetic, and practical requirements," which was Gropius's ideal.

To underscore a departure from the past and highlight Bauhaus's spiritual maturity, Gropius revised the curriculum, and the most significant change was the abandonment of the dual teaching method in the workshops.

Josef Albers, *The Factory*, 1925. Photo: J R via Flickr, CC BY 2.0

Bauhaus's activities in Dessau commenced with the intense work of students and faculty. Their initial task involved planning and furnishing several objects commissioned by the Dessau city council from Gropius.

These included, among others, the Bauhaus Building in Dessau and the building of the employment agency office.

“You must walk around the building to understand its materiality and function of its various elements“ — Walter Gropius

Walter Gropius, *Bauhaus Building in Dessau*, 1925 — 1926. Photo: Lelikron via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

It's worth mentioning that the complex of Bauhaus buildings in Dessau was an architectural manifesto for Gropius—a visible expression of the ideas represented by Bauhaus.

Walter Gropius, Staircase in *Bauhaus Building in Dessau*, 1925 — 1926. Photo: PtrQs via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

In this architectural ensemble in Dessau, all technical, artistic, and social requirements were fulfilled, which was always Gropius's aspiration.

The Bauhaus School consisted of three main components: the School of Arts and Crafts, the workshop block, and the dormitory for students.

Walter Gropius, *The student accommodation wing*, 1925 — 1926. Photo: Spyrosdrakopoulos via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

The three-story building of the School of Arts and Crafts was connected to the Bauhaus workshops by a two-story "bridge" suspended above the street. In this connector, there were administrative rooms, meeting halls, and Gropius's private studio.

The three-story workshop wing, the largest in the complex, was surrounded by a glass curtain wall. Mirroring the design of the Fagus Factory, the supporting columns were placed outside the glazed wall, giving the impression of the structure levitating in space.

Walter Gropius, *Students’ Dormitory,* 1925 — 1926. Photo: Spyrosdrakopoulos via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Additionally, the wing of a building, supported by pillars, connected the workshop complex with the students' dormitory—a six-story building accommodating 28 rooms, each serving as both a studio and a bedroom for the students, with each room featuring a balcony.

Walter Gropius, *House for Bauhaus Teachers — Moholy-Nagy & Feininger*, 1925 — 1926. Photo: M_H.DE via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

It is noteworthy to highlight the educational activities carried out in the Bauhaus workshops in Dessau and their notable accomplishments.

Bauhaus in Dessaut introduced a new teaching methodology, notably departing from the dualism that characterized education in Weimar. Furthermore, individual workshops were characterized by a higher degree of innovation.

For example, the metal workshop began designing modern lighting devices, introducing concepts such as ceiling fixtures, and combinations of opaque and matte glass with simple forms, technically defined by the action of light. Additionally, innovative solutions were implemented, such as securing lampshades in metal frames and utilizing aluminum.

In the mid-1920s, the metal workshop surpassed most inventions in the field of electrical installations, both European and American. Commonly used solutions, now considered obvious, originated precisely there.

A similar breakthrough, both in terms of aesthetics and techniques, occurred in the furniture workshop. In early 1925, Marcel Breuer discovered the potential of incorporating steel tubes into furniture design. By the end of that year, he completed his initial project featuring these elements, and it remains in production to this day.

Marcel Breuer, *Wassily Chair also known as Model B3 chair*, 1925 — 1926. Photo: via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

He probably came up with the idea of using steel for furniture production while admiring the curvature of the handlebars of his bicycle, which he rode around Dessau.

From 1925 until leaving school in 1928, Breuer created an entire collection of designs utilizing steel tubes.

Another renowned and captivating creation by Breuer is the Cesca chair, crafted in 1928 after he left Bauhaus. This chair achieved global recognition as it entered mass production and became widely distributed.

Marcel breuer, *Cesca Chair*, 1928. Photo: Holger.Ellgaard via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

Breuer not only initiated a revolution in chair design but also delved into the issue of furniture standardization. During his time at Bauhaus, he developed a system for storing modular units and designed wall-mounted furniture for various spaces, including Walter Gropius's home in Dessau.

Breuer's main goal was to create furniture devoid of individual characteristics that would seamlessly fit into any interior, much like any living object, be it a flower or a person.

Furniture, according to Breuer, is an integral part of the environment. It is impersonal in itself but gains meaning through its use or as components of a whole.

This interest in rationalization, anonymity, and standardization is also evident not only in Bauhaus members but also in the works of Breuer's students. The majority of them make use of wood, leather, and fabric, and a considerable portion of their designs has found application in mass production.

Christian Dell, idell-Lamp for Kaiser. Photo: Christos Vittoratos via Wikimedia commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

Bauhaus students began in a somewhat amateur and carefree manner in Weimar. However, as soon as they engaged in experiments with new techniques, materials, and textures in Dessau, there was a shift from playful exploration of form to logical composition.

The result of this shift was more systematic training in the field of textile techniques and yarn dyeing. Numerous possibilities were explored, and focusing on specific tasks led to an increase in discipline.

The focus shifted to the physical properties of materials, introducing substances that reflected light and absorbed sound. Seeking a broader audience, there was a transition from craftsmanship to mass production. Manual work persisted only in the laboratory, while machine work enabled mass production.

The question of whether to transition to machine production or to stick with traditional handicraft work sparked numerous controversies in the weaving workshop, which remained the only one to uphold the dualistic teaching system prevalent in Weimar.

Another workshop deserving special attention is the printing workshop, which endeavored to define a new typographic system focused on achieving high readability. Bauhaus argued that transparency is the foundation of modern printing.

Herbert Bayer, *Universal alphabet*, 1925 via Wikimedia commons, Public domain

The absolute transparency is a characteristic feature of Bauhaus typographic works. According to Bauhaus principles, information is paramount and should not suffer due to other aesthetic considerations. Additionally, they believed that letters should not be closed in any arbitrary shapes, such as squares or circles.

When Bauhaus worked in Weimar, they didn't set clearly defined typographic rules. Back then, the Bauhaus style showed strong influences of expressionism and Dadaism: flyers, programs, covers, and other prints displayed chaos of symbols and letters scattered in artistic disorder.

Only after moving to Dessau did the graphic designs of Bauhaus publications attain distinctive features of order, symmetry, and transparency. Texts were composed in carefully balanced columns, and decorative elements were reduced to basic geometric shapes: circles, squares, and thin horizontal or vertical lines.

Additionally, the ratio of text to illustrations was calculated with mathematical precision. The use of serifs in lettering was abandoned, and this was a revolutionary move, especially in Germany, where the Gothic alphabet was still commonly employed.

In Dessau, the printing workshop was led by Herbert Bayer.

Striving for readability and clarity, Bayer and Albers designed sans-serif and—single-element fonts. They also stopped using uppercase letters, as they did not distinguish between uppercase and lowercase letters since, as they acknowledged, we do not speak using large 'A' and small 'a'.

After successful years of experimentation, Gropius decided to leave Bauhaus and chose Hannes Meyer as his successor. There were several reasons for Gropius' decision to step down.

Firstly, he dedicated 9 years to Bauhaus, and during this time, administrative responsibilities hindered his ability to pursue architectural activities.

Secondly, even in Dessau, where the authorities were more liberal, the modest funds from fees for Bauhaus work barely covered the salaries, provided free spaces for impoverished students, and expanded the course program.

Furthermore, attacks against the ideology of Bauhaus were intensifying.

Meyer, the second director of Bauhaus, brought in new people and outlined new goals for the school. He expanded the architecture course, introduced mathematical and engineering studies, and developed a systematic curriculum emphasizing the architect's responsibility to society. According to him, architecture is not an individual and emotional artistic activity.

Within two years under Meyer's leadership, the architectural department of Bauhaus was involved in expanding the residential complex Törten on the outskirts of Dessau, initially designed by Gropius.

Additionally, students collaborated on the design of the ADGB Trade Union School near Berlin, which was completed in 1930.

Walter Gropius, *Dessau-Törten Housing Estate*, 1926 —1928. Photo: qwesy qwesy via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

Hannes Meyer and Hans Wittwer, *ADGB Trade Union School*, 1928 — 1930. Photo: Dabbelju via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 2.5

During Meyer's era, workshops became more involved in production. An increasing number of Bauhaus designs entered mass production, doubling the school's income from fees.

Despite being a competent individual and achieving success as a teacher, Meyer found himself in conflict with the authorities in Dessau due to his leftist views. Additionally, he encouraged students to participate in political activities, which was condemned in Germany in 1930.

In the summer of 1930, when Meyer was asked to submit his resignation, he published a bitter letter in one of the Berlin newspapers, expressing his condemnation of the prevailing beliefs at Bauhaus during its takeover.

In this letter, Meyer criticized the unproductive hours dedicated to designing teacups in the spirit of constructivism at Bauhaus. He also expressed his disapproval of the school's atmosphere, which he believed was permeated with outdated and unclear social concepts.

After Meyer's departure, the Dessau authorities tried to persuade Gropius to become school director again. Gropius declined but suggested offering the directorship to the architect Mies van der Rohe, whom Gropius had first encountered in Behrens's studio during World War I.

Mies van der Rohe gained worldwide fame by designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 International Exposition in Barcelona, Spain.

Mies van der Rohe, *Barcelona Pavillon*, 1929. Photo: Ashley Pomeroy via Wikimedia commons, CC BY 3.0

Mies van der Rohe brought his purist and perfectionist views to the Bauhaus, driven by a passion for order, clarity, and excellence. His initial action upon taking on the role of director was to eliminate individuals with political affiliations from the school.

Under Mies van der Rohe's leadership, architectural studies were expanded, and it seemed that the school was gaining a new lease of life. However, van der Rohe had to confront a political situation far more serious than the one opposed by Gropius.

In August 1932, the Nazi party took control of the Anhalt province, where Dessau was located, and immediately initiated steps towards the closure of the Bauhaus. For the Nazis, the Bauhaus symbolized "Bolshevism," decadence, and subversion. Consequently, the Bauhaus in Dessau was closed in October 1932.

However, Mies van der Rohe managed to reopen the school as a private institution in Berlin. He rented an abandoned telephone factory, and Bauhaus resumed its activities for what was to be a challenging six months.

Later, Hitler came to power, and persecutions resumed. In April 1933, the Gestapo seized the school, conducted searches looking for evidence of communist activities, and banned students and lecturers from returning to the school.

For several weeks, Mies van der Rohe attempted to persuade the authorities to reopen the school, but he couldn't accept the conditions imposed on him. Thus, the final closure of the school occurred in July 1933.

Meanwhile, the ideas of Bauhaus and its teaching methods were transferred and embraced in art and architectural schools worldwide due to the emigration of Bauhaus members.

Summary

When Gropius was a little boy, homes were illuminated by gas, each room had a coal stove, and there were no electric trams, cars, or airplanes. Additionally, there wasn't even radio, film, a phonograph, or a telephone.

The world in which Gropius grew up, even in 1919, seemed relatively simple, and the idea of planned environmental transformation was not an absolute utopia. However, over the next twenty years, there was such technological development that no reformers could keep pace with these changes.

Bauhaus, despite facing economic and political difficulties, made significant strides in this field. But, as Gropius stated, he couldn't act faster than the society he was meant to serve.

Gropius, who merged 19th-century idealism with 20th-century realism, was convinced that the foundation of all reforms lies in education. However, views on what and how to teach evolved gradually as Bauhaus adapted to changes in the field of sociology.

In the 19th century, the idea emerged that it was possible to teach the artist skills that would create a formula unifying all branches of art, including architecture and design. This idea resurfaced in the 1920s in the debates among futurists and constructivists, and Bauhaus in Weimar was the first large-scale initiative aiming to put these theories into practice.

Soon, it became apparent that reconciling the artist's ideals with industrial demands was not feasible and that new means of action were necessary to bridge the gap between art and technology. To find these means, Bauhaus developed a radical and revolutionary educational program.

It was after 1923 that artists contributed to the emergence of the original Bauhaus style, based on simple geometric forms, reflecting the influences of constructivism and cubism.

At Bauhaus, Gropius emphasized that designers are primarily accountable to their clients. Designers cannot impose new standards based on revolutionary design solutions until society is ready to accept them.

According to Bauhaus, the goal was not the product but the human being. Therefore, the profound humanism stemming from efforts to understand the psychological and physical needs of humans was Bauhaus's most valuable contribution to 20th-century architecture and design.

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