Exploring Cubism: The Impactful Art Movement that Redefined Form and Space — History of Art #2

Cubism was the name given to a painting movement that emerged and evolved in France between 1906 and 1909, playing a pivotal role in the transformations of 20th-century visual culture. Cubism defined fundamental starting points not only for contemporary painting and sculpture but also indirectly for architecture and various arts and techniques that shaped the appearance of our environment - our homes, streets, and spectacles.

Cubism was not categorized as an artistic movement, as it did not represent the program of a specific group of creators. Instead, it emerged as a result of the creative and, as it turned out, revolutionary experiments and artistic quests of a few outstanding artists.

The name "cubism" was coined by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles, who, ironically, likened Braque's artistic method to the French word "le cube," meaning cube or block. Cubist art was entirely new as it dramatically departed from the traditional linear perspective that had been used since the Renaissance. It is a form of art that emphasizes creation over imitation, disregarding superficial resemblance.

All the artistic 20th-century transformations, such as Futurism or those stemming from the further development of artistic revolutions like Neoplasticism, Dadaism, or Surrealism, drew their patterns and inspirations from Cubism. Therefore, Cubism was a significant referring point for many contemporary art movements.

The precursors to Cubism were Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso. While the specific techniques of Cubism may belong to the past, its core issues, such as the new visual and intellectual understanding of space and the object relations defined by that space, remain relevant and open to exploration today.

The Birth of Cubism — Proto-Cubism

Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Gertrude Stein, 1906

“When we discovered cubism, we did not have the aim of discovering cubism. We only wanted to express what was in us.” - Pablo Picasso

Shortly after creating the famous portrait of Gertrude Stein, where a young Picasso decided to move away from imitating the deceptive richness of "nature," he embarked on an entire series of nudes characterized by their substantial, massive structure. These models accentuated the fullness of form, intensified by proportions: short legs, relative slenderness, or conversely, pronounced muscularity of the arms, a powerful block-like neck, and torso, with either too large or too small heads.

In Picasso's works, the form does not conform to external norms or influences; on the contrary, it defines its own criteria. It is detached from the surrounding space and indifferent to light. Such a form does not occupy space but fills it from top to bottom.

This arbitrary separation and isolation of the form from space emphasized a problem that became crucial for both Cubism and contemporary art — the problem of the relationship between form and space. Cubism raised fundamental questions about how form can exist independently of its surroundings and how space can be defined in the context of that form.

In traditional perspective painting, form has always been closely linked to space and the viewer's point of view. Cubism challenged this convention by presenting shapes that not only resisted adherence to perspective but also appeared to exist in isolation from the surrounding space. It raised questions about the nature of both space and form, as well as how these two elements interact with each other and how to redefine them.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907

The transformation in Picasso's work became widely noticeable after the creation of "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon," an unfinished painting from the spring of 1907.

This painting opened a new chapter in Picasso's artistic career and contributed to the evolution of his painting style. However, it was not the direct precursor of Cubism but rather a situation that could lead to it, with one crucial condition: that the informational content of this painting would be understood.

The informational content of "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" was a code related to interpreting and understanding the new approach to form and space. It was the key to comprehending a new aesthetic in which form was deconstructed into geometric elements, and perspective raised questions about the multi-dimensionality and simultaneity of viewpoints.

Decoding this informational content paved the way for the development of Cubism and other innovative directions in art.

What is most striking about this painting is its conspicuous inconsistency. It commences with the incongruity of the expansive square canvas hosting these ladies. They are entirely detached from the backdrop and each other, almost appearing to overlap and juxtapose in a way that conveys an unfinished quality. Everything is confusing — smooth surfaces, sharp-edged contours, and angular segments. Within this chaotic microcosm, there's a hand that looks strangely bent above the head, an arm that's separated by a streak of background from a curtain, and another arm that smoothly blends into a pink hip without a clear boundary. Finally, there are heads — all looking "Iberian" with flat features, wide-open, unmoving eyes, long noses seen from the side, and barely visible mouths.

"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" is often considered a pivotal moment in art history, symbolizing a departure from traditional forms of representation and opening the door to experiments that influenced the further development of various artistic movements, including abstract art and surrealism, contributing to innovations in 20th-century art.

Pablo Picasso, Self-Portrait, 1907

The entire year of 1907 and most of 1908 can be considered a period in which Picasso deciphered what he dared to present in "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon." During these years, he created works in which this entirely new thematic element was clearly outlined and irreversibly separated from previous conventions. These works laid the groundwork for a new system of Cubism that evolved and transformed in the subsequent years.

Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire and Chateau Noir, 1904

The first phase of Cubism's development, known as Proto-Cubism, was heavily influenced by the work of the French painter Paul Cézanne. Through the observation of reality, Cézanne concluded that all shapes in nature could be reduced to three geometric forms: the sphere, the cone, and the cylinder. This conclusion led Cézanne to paint simplified and geometric forms.

The work of Paul Cézanne highly influenced Georges Braque, who, while painting landscapes in the south of France, created his early Cubist works.

Georges Braque, The Viaduct at L'Estaque, 1907

Instead of painting traditional landscapes, Braque used polyhedrons, arranging them one after another. These shapes occupied the entire space, extending from the bottom to the top and covering the sides. All these polyhedrons formed something like "blocks" on the canvas, and brushstrokes were diagonal, creating soft, cubic forms on the canvas.

Due to these polyhedrons, Braque could accentuate the edges while depicting the space between them. It's as if the painting originates from all edges and vertices simultaneously. Each vertex could be the beginning of a separate arrangement, and the edges formed simple shapes, but they weren't always entirely visible. Some faded into shadows, others disappeared in bright areas, transforming into independent shapes.

What Braque was doing appeared to be a nod to Cézanne's approach to constructing paintings with basic shapes such as cylinders, spheres, and cones. However, Braque took it a step further. He minimized the differences between various parts of the painting, eliminating aerial perspective through the consistent use of colors. He didn't depict a horizon and directed the edges of the shapes towards their outer vertices, rather than some points beyond them.

In Proto-Cubism, Picasso and Braque used subdued colors, mainly dominated by shades of browns, greens, and grays. Influenced by the work of Paul Cézanne, they employed geometricized forms of objects. They avoided the use of shading and moved away from the traditional linear perspective.

A crucial inspiration for the emergence of Cubism, especially for Pablo Picasso, was the discovery of non-European art: specifically, the art of Oceania and Africa. Picasso's painting "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" is a result of these exotic fascinations.

Early Cubist works generated significant controversy due to their radical departure from conventional representation. This involved the distortion of figures, simplification of forms, introduction of geometrization, and abandonment of traditional lighting techniques.

The departure from the conventional understanding of space and form towards more abstract and multifaceted approaches had a profound impact on emerging artistic movements such as abstract art, constructivism, and surrealism. For Cubism, this departure was foundational, playing a crucial role in the 20th-century art revolution.

Analytical Cubism

In the years 1909-1910, artistic experimentation propelled the Cubists into the second phase of this movement—the analytical phase. Analytical Cubism entailed visually breaking down objects and decomposing their forms. Objects or figures were depicted as if disintegrating, seen from all sides simultaneously.

Analytical Cubism (1909-1912) was characterized by analyzing the structure of the object, leading to its complete fragmentation. Cubist painters aimed to represent the object simultaneously from various perspectives, dissecting planes. The Contours, sharp edges, shapes, and elements of the painting verged on abstraction, becoming disjointed and losing clarity. The boundary between the subject and the surrounding background began to blur and fade.

During the analytical Cubist phase, artists aimed not to paint for the viewer's eye but for their mind—the organ that, to the fullest extent, "understands" objects. The recipient didn't necessarily have to see the entire object; instead, the mind would "fill in" the missing elements based on associations, constructing a complete image. This approach involved a rejection of traditional perspective, as the mind could imagine an object from various angles.

Georges Braque, Mandora, 1910

Additionally, Picasso and Braque abandoned landscapes and instead painted still lifes and single-figure compositions with interpenetrating forms. They achieved this through the use of a monochromatic color palette that proved challenging to decipher.

In 1910, the second year of analytical Cubism, Georges Braque created a series of monumental still lifes. Some of them featured wings, mandolins, or metronomes. Braque also experimented with unconventional canvas shapes, such as "Woman with a Mandolin," which was the first oval-shaped painting.

Braque's still lifes had an elongated rectangular format, built on the rhythm of vertical elements. With individual planes stacked one upon another, Braque aimed to create a sense of equal space across the entire canvas, eliminating traditional perspectival hierarchies where the top or bottom space might seem more distant or inaccessible.

By highlighting sharp edges of objects, and then blurring and re-discovering them in fragmented ways, Braque completely removed clear boundaries between the object and its surroundings. Additionally, he reduced the color palette to several shades of browns and grays, eliminating the distinction of individual objects while unifying them.

Georges Braque, Woman with a Mandolin, 1910

In the painting "Woman with a Mandolin," where the rhythm is reminiscent of Picasso's semi-nudes, the presence of a figure — whose space is disturbed — is indicated solely by surface scratches and breaks, upon which flashes of light shimmer.

In analytical cubism, as seen in Braque's painting "Girl with a Mandolin," the artist examines the structure of objects, breaking them down into elements and presenting them from various perspectives. Additionally, the artist emphasizes sharp lines and flashes of light, creating the impression that the object becomes more intricate and dynamic, gradually blending with the space. The gradual fading of elements towards the edges of the enclosed oval forms creates a cohesive space where the object becomes an integral part of a dynamic composition, rather than distinctly separated.

In Picasso's work, a similar approach to depicting the subject is already evident in the portrait of Vollard, painted in the winter of 1909/1910. The cool and methodical approach, which best reflects the characteristics of what would be called analytical cubism, indicates the need to confront freshly developed techniques with the fully preserved individuality of the model.

Picasso employs a specific method of analyzing the structure of the subject, breaking it down into elements and presenting it from various perspectives to achieve a more complex and multidimensional effect.

Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1910

The goal of analytical Cubism was to represent objects in a more complex and multidimensional manner, eliminating traditional perspectival hierarchies.

In paintings from the analytical Cubism period, numerous elements of the traditional approach to perspective and form fade away. The contrast between the object and the background, differentiation of planes, diversity of profiles, continuity of contours, and individualization of colors are all reduced. The distinctive "cubes" characteristic of Cubism also starts to disappear, giving rise to a novel geometry of spatial thinking, where the mind actively "fills in" the missing elements.

Pablo Picasso, Ma Jolie, 1911

Objects transform into a specific geometry where planes intersect and overlap, and the rhythm of vertical and horizontal divisions creates minimal disturbances. All of this suggests the presence of the object, conceived independently of plans, angles, and viewpoints, while simultaneously being an integral part of the surrounding space.

This characteristic led to the label of Analytical Cubism as "hermetic," signifying that works from this period were sometimes challenging to fully comprehend, demanding deeper analysis, and, in a sense, were closed off to immediate, easy interpretation.

It's also worth noting that in Braque's "hermetic" paintings, letters began to appear. Furthermore, in 1912, he started to imitate various textures and surfaces, such as marble, and introduced ready-made elements like newspapers and packaging. These elements aided him in reconstructing the object in a new space.

New Concept of Space

The perception of space is typically associated with something "natural," -- once and for all determined. Space seems to be something that encompasses objects like a transparent vessel. This concept of space has its roots in the traditional axioms of Euclidean geometry, enriched by later achievements such as modern empiricism. This conceptualization contributed to a convergence between the realms of rigorous thinking and imagination, giving rise to the Renaissance perspective.

However, the Cubists departed from this belief; space, for them, no longer represented something predetermined, ready, and permanently established. Instead, it became a created entity, shedding its natural properties and becoming an integral part of the painting process that had to be constructed.

The inquisitive nature of Cubist thought challenged the understanding of space as per Euclid, proposing that space is not given but discovered. It is continually unveiled, and in the act of discovery, it is constructed anew each time, taking on a different form with each iteration.

Juan Gris, Portrait of Pablo Picasso, 1912

It's worth mentioning that Renaissance concepts implanted a deep conviction that every model can be fully reconstructed, and there is no essential difference between reality and its image, additionally, nature's purpose was to serve humanity.

For Cubists, nature or the natural order of things became empty words. The classical concept of space assumes that the representation of a model (object) can be either correct or incorrect. The Cubists weren't concerned with correctness because there is no similarity between the object and its image; there are only partial analogies — fragmentary approximations.

In the classical concept, the model was in space, immersed in it like in an aquarium — visible and tangible. For Cubists, the object always remains somewhere distant. It can be touched, brought to life, disassembled, or concluded upon, but it cannot be the starting point. It implies that the object or model is not unequivocally defined and does not adhere to traditional rules of the space.

Cubist space, initially constructed from geometric shapes—such as "cubes" in the proto-Cubist phase—later evolved into a realm of allusions and associations during Analytical Cubism, where the boundary between the model and the space started disappearing. Space became even more diverse and variable, rejecting the classical concept of space. The Cubists began to create space using everything at hand: letters, tapers, newspaper clippings, and attached objects. The Cubists systematically developed a method to depict space that was purely operational and arbitrary, challenging the unity and absoluteness of space in classical concepts.

This progression of space leads us to the final stage of Cubism, known as synthetic Cubism, where objects become simpler and less distorted. Additionally, artists began to employ collage techniques.

Cubist space became a new, stimulating concept for imagination about space, serving as a fresh mediator between the picture and the model.

Synthetic Cubism

The final phase of Cubism, known as synthetic, lasted from 1912 to 1914, with the notable initiation marked by Juan Gris joining in 1913.

During the Synthetic Cubism period, artists simplified the transformation of reality compared to the analytical phase. Synthetic Cubism was primarily distinguished by a more straightforward deformation of objects, the incorporation of vibrant colors, and the utilization of collages.

Juan Gris, The Table, 1914

While objects retained a simplified and shade-free appearance, they underwent a merging process through the bold application of color. Flat objects were strategically positioned one behind the other on successive planes, introducing depth and multi-dimensionality to the artwork. In contrast to analytical Cubism, objects were not deconstructed into elements but rather integrated more cohesively.

The placement on different planes gave the impression that the objects were both part of one larger image and separate entities. The objects were not entirely integrated or blended, preserving their individuality. This approach introduced a novel way of perceiving reality as a complex, multidimensional mosaic of distinct elements.

Pablo Picasso, Glass and bottle of Suze, 1912

The Cubist revolution, which primarily embraced and transformed the painterly concept of space, occurred through the most advanced limitations of technology and the standardization of its effects. This period is termed "synthetic," as paintings began constructing visual space from pre-established, ready-made elements.

Analytical Cubism represented a stage where artists disassembled objects into fragments, examining them from various perspectives. In contrast, Synthetic Cubism aimed to flatten the image, eradicating all traces of three-dimensional space and emphasizing synthesis—combining different elements into a unified, flat composition.

Moreover, there exists a dual interpretation of the attached elements, such as newspaper fragments, functioning as ordinary and aesthetic objects. It sparked a discussion that persisted throughout the entire 20th century regarding the intricate relationship between art and reality.

Georges Braque, Still Life on a Table with 'Gillette', 1914

Braque demonstrated that the most abstract and sophisticated understanding of space does not differ significantly from the understanding of a simple artisan, one who imitates marble, gluing a suitably cut piece of wallpaper.

In contrast to traditional painters, he experiences the object "manually" and does so repeatedly, playing with it, improving it, and so on.

Indeed, it was a crucial period in the history of art that influenced the further development of painting and other artistic disciplines.

Fernand Léger

Fernand Léger, while not as popular as Picasso or Braque, deserves discussion within the context of Cubism, even though his approach to this movement was somewhat different from the work of Picasso and Braque. He focused more on dynamics, machinery, and urbanization rather than the analysis of form.

Fernand Léger was the humble son of a Norman cattle farmer and trader. Due to a lack of interest in formal education, he left school. Abandoning an apprenticeship with an architect and penniless, he headed to Paris to paint. Influenced by Cézanne, he concluded that Impressionist painting (which he also encountered) wasn't for him. Léger expressed that the Impressionist era was naturally melodic, a quality he felt his own era no longer possessed.

It's worth mentioning here the beginnings of Cubism. The difference between traditional painting and Cubism lay in the fact that traditional painting started "from the object," beginning with the choice of a model, which artists then tried to faithfully depict and reproduce.

Cubism, on the other hand, approached the subject through a long exploratory process, finding its model in what was already predetermined. Picasso and Braque discovered significant themes, along the way, not at the very beginning. This approach also applies to Leger's art.

Fernand Leger, Woman Sewing, 1909

We know very little about Léger's work before 1910; almost nothing has survived. The painting 'Women Seeing' from 1909 indicates that he was then striving to define form in a way that brought him close to pre-Cubism. Similarly, he attempted to break the coherence and continuity of the image and create a space allowing for 'reaching the object,' though in a significantly more basic manner.

As Léger himself described it, he aimed to destabilize the fundamental structure of the form. He manipulated the form in such a way as to disrupt the traditional or expected balance, altering proportions, shapes, or other structural elements. His goal was to introduce an element of uncertainty and movement into the form depicted in his paintings.

Around 1910 he painted his first cubist work "Nudes in the Forest". It can be said that from this point onward, Léger became a participant in the Cubist movement; however, he painted compositions that were more characterized by compact and rhythmic form.

Fernand Leger, Nudes in the Forest, 1910

He also began to apply the division of objects into cylindrical segments, simultaneously limiting human forms. This style came to be known as "tubism." In Léger's tubism, human figures and objects are represented by tubes, cylinders, and other tubular forms, giving the works a distinctive appearance.

It's worth noting that Léger's tubism is a more niche and specific variation of Cubism, focused on tubular forms and dynamic movement. Nevertheless, it is part of the spectrum of experiments in 20th-century art that contributed to the broadly defined contemporary art.

In the lectures he delivered between 1913 and 1914, he defined his concept of art, contrasting the former "visual realism" with "conceptual realism." He spoke about the changing landscape of thematic painting due to the emergence of inventions such as color photography, and cinematography, the abundance of popular novels, and the proliferation of theaters.

He discussed the necessary transformations in visual sensitivity as a result of the complication and condensation of experiences, and the appearance in the modern person's life of cars, advertisements, posters, and artificial lighting.

Legér's statements explained how and why a new form had to take shape in his painting. The form he proposed was constructed on discontinuous transitions, intensified contrasts, and multiplied rhythms.

His paintings unfold a great ethos of modernity. Constant motifs appear gleaming ribbons, gears, grids, signaling signs, poster letters, and other elements that reflect the urban character of cities at that time. However, Léger doesn't reproduce specific mechanisms or constructions; his aim is not merely to depict objects but rather to capture their essence — the influence of modern technology and its mechanized rhythms on humanity.

Fernand Leger, Soldiers Playing Cards, 1917

Fernand Léger explores and describes the conditions shaping contemporary consciousness — the force and frequency of stimuli. When a human figure appears in his paintings, it has the same shape, equally anonymous, and pure countenance, as the world surrounding it.

The innovations of Picasso and Braque primarily represented a revolution in the autonomous world of imagery, while their connections to contemporary reality were only indirect. On the other hand, Leger's innovations, although simpler, directly intervene in contemporary life, altering its perspective on the world and shaping its appearance.

Fernand Léger was one of those artists who contributed to shaping and advancing Cubism, adding diversity and richness to this movement. He was most influential during the period of Synthetic Cubism, characterized by the synthesis of various materials and techniques, more dynamic compositions, and experiments with colors, perfectly reflecting his interests and aesthetics.

His experimental approach to form, color, and dynamics had a significant impact on the further development of abstract and modern art.

Consequences of Cubism

The revolution of Cubism and its impact on creative initiatives of the contemporary era unfold from various perspectives. These encompass the structural aspect, aimed at shaping a new conveyance of space; the technological aspect, seeking support in new materials and technical procedures of painting; and the iconographic aspect, discovering new models for this novel art within the oldest imagery traditions of our civilization.

Cubism emerged in the early 20th century when art, influenced by 19th-century subjectivism and the psychological approach to color experiences in Neo-Impressionist art, lacked innovation. It was also a time when artists were exploring new ways of visual expression beyond traditional representations of the natural world. There had long been a desire to find a genuinely modern way of depicting things and phenomena because the belief was that the true understanding of humanity lies in its internal mechanisms rather than its surroundings.

It is worth noting that Cubism, unlike other art movements of the 20th century, was the most universal. It did not focus on a single main aspect, as was the case with Futurism, which concentrated on dynamism, or Surrealism, which followed dreamlike qualities. Instead, Cubism aimed to create an entirely new and autonomous language for representing the world. Thanks to it, dreams of a detached language of form and color could materialize not only in one but simultaneously in many currents of contemporary art.

Additionally, Cubism does not have a genealogy similar to modern art movements of the 20th century because it does not originate from the 19th century. It is rather an unprecedented phenomenon, relating to the entire history of art, encompassing not only one aspect but the entirety of the plastic artistic language.

The Cubist revolution had a tremendous impact on subsequent artistic movements such as the Futurists, Surrealists, Dadaists, Constructivists, Neoplastics, and many others.

This new concept of art opened up fresh possibilities for human perception, not only tied to the present but also to the past. For the first time since the Renaissance, contemporary individuals could identify with their historical and artistic heritage, rediscovering the roots of their identity in the context of modern art.

It's worth adding that the deconstruction of form and space in Cubism laid the groundwork for the development of abstract art. Wassily Kandinsky and Kazimir Malevich embraced Cubist ideas, propelling them further into pure abstraction. Moreover, the incorporation of collage during the synthetic phase expanded the possibilities of artistic expression and foreshadowed the emergence of Surrealism and Dadaism. Additionally, Cubist principles influenced sculpture, with artists like Archipenko applying similar geometric abstraction to three-dimensional forms.

Thanks to Picasso, contemporary art could traverse once again the oldest paths of human archetypes, reaching into primal and universal patterns or symbols present in culture. Picasso's discovery became a key to redefining meanings and artistic forms, enabling art to return to its roots.

On the other hand, Braque allowed art to look at itself in a new way, enabling it to recognize itself through the use of organic and invigorating elements. His innovative approach allowed art to find its own formula and understand its essence in the context of the contemporary world.

Leger, the third of this trio of artists, introduced a new dimension to the perception of man in the contemporary context. His works enabled a reflection on oneself in the mirror of modernity, understanding the role of the individual in the modern world.

Each of these innovations was possible thanks to the discovery of a new, Cubist space. From this space emerged not only Cubist methods of creation but also an iconography of universal scope, the influence of which extended across a broad spectrum of art.

Summary:

The Cubist breakthrough, occurring in the early 20th century, was a revolutionary moment that transcended the boundaries of traditional artistic conventions. Initiated by pioneers like Picasso and Braque, this movement marked a departure from the longstanding practices that had dominated the art world for centuries, introducing a radical new way of perceiving and representing the world.

Cubism, as a response to entrenched artistic norms, rejected the notion of art as mere imitation, opting instead to capture the essence of objects, people, and scenes from multiple perspectives. This departure aligned with the intellectual climate of the time, characterized by groundbreaking scientific theories and the exploration of the subconscious mind.

The profound and far-reaching influence of Cubism on the art world cannot be overstated. It not only challenged artistic conventions but also paved the way for significant developments, such as the rise of abstraction, surrealism, and the integration of everyday objects into artistic expression through collage and assemblage techniques.

In conclusion, Cubism emerges as a transformative current in 20th-century modern art. Its seismic shift challenged established norms, reflecting the tumultuous times it emerged in, and left an enduring legacy that continues to shape the art world. Beyond the canvas, Cubism's influence permeated other artistic disciplines, contributing to the cultural richness of the 20th century and beyond. As a radical departure from tradition, Cubism opened the door to a new era of artistic exploration and innovation, proving that art has the power to transcend boundaries and redefine our perception of the world.

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